📚 Historical Sources and Research Design: The study distinguishes between two kinds of middle classes—those that emerged autonomously during gradual capitalist development and those rapidly created by state-led modernization. Author-assembled district-level historical data, survey material, and archival records on pre-Revolutionary Russia and its feudal estates are used to locate and measure these groups within a single national setting.

🔎 What Was Tested and How: The analysis links the historical presence of the bourgeois estate (meshchanstvo) to contemporary regional variation in democratic outcomes. Post-communist democratic competitiveness and media freedoms are employed as proxies for regional democratic variation.

📈 Key Findings:

• Regions with a stronger historical bourgeois estate (meshchanstvo) show higher levels of post-communist democratic competitiveness and greater media freedom.
• This association persists despite the Bolsheviks’ leveling ideology and later waves of autocratic consolidation.
• Two causal pathways are proposed to explain this persistence:
• (a) Interactions between familial channels of human-capital transmission and the revolutionaries’ modernization drive that preserved social structures across regimes.
• (b) Transmission of entrepreneurial values and practices that operated independently of state policy.

💡 Why It Matters: These results refine understanding of how different origins of middle classes shape political regime orientations. The findings are particularly relevant for theories of democratization and political behavior in public-sector-dependent societies undergoing authoritarian modernization, showing that historically rooted social structures can survive ideological leveling and influence post-communist democratic trajectories.