Americans' attitudes toward liberal democracy evolved between the 1950s-60s and 2016, according to a replication of McClosky's (1964) study using new data from the Cooperative Congressional Election Study.

Our Core Question: How have Americans' views on democratic institutions changed over time?

We analyzed responses to 26 survey questions, finding that while hostility toward certain democratic procedural norms has increased, tolerance for racial and ethnic equality has grown. Factor Analysis Reveal Three Dimensions: Our analysis uncovered three distinct dimensions of democratic values: elitism (favoring elite rule), authoritarian leanings, and attitudes regarding racial supremacy.

Key Findings & Political Behavior: These factors significantly influenced political behavior during the 2016 presidential election — particularly vote choice. They also contributed to the mass unrest seen in 2020, reflecting fault lines from America's contested political history.